50 Years of Humiliation

Claudius (born Tiberius Claudius Drusus) was the son of the famous Drusus the Elder, the younger brother of Germanicus, and thus the uncle of Caligula.

He was born on August 1, 10 BC, in Lugdunum (modern-day Lyon) during the reign of Augustus. From childhood, the boy was weak and sickly: he stuttered, suffered from tremors, tics, and foaming at the mouth. Most likely, Claudius suffered from a form of cerebral palsy. To the disappointment of his family, those around him considered him a feeble-minded freak. His mother, Antonia, spoke of her son thus: “...he is a monster among men, whom nature began and never finished, and, wishing to reproach someone for stupidity, she would say: ‘stupider than my Claudius’.” His grandmother, Livia, completely ignored her grandson and never communicated with him personally.

In antiquity, where the idea of the unity of the beautiful and the moral prevailed, such an attitude was not surprising. The situation was exacerbated by the presence of Claudius's older brother, the stately and talented Germanicus, against whom he hopelessly lost. In short, the child's childhood was terrible.

Nevertheless, Augustus took care of the education of his grand-nephew, assigning him worthy teachers, including the historian Titus Livius. Despite his external shortcomings, Claudius became a highly educated person, deeply knowledgeable in history, law, philosophy, literature, music, and fluent in Greek.

Augustus himself was the first to discover potential in Claudius. Suetonius cites letters from Augustus revealing his personal attitude toward his younger relative: “The poor fellow is unlucky: for in important matters, when his mind is firm, he sufficiently reveals the nobility of his soul. ‘...’ I am amazed, dear Livia, that your grandson Tiberius's declamation pleased me. I cannot understand how he could, while declaiming, say everything necessary so coherently, when he usually speaks so incoherently.” Despite his personal sympathy for the young man, Augustus decided to keep him away from state and public affairs, fearing public disgrace for the family.

He was occasionally allowed to appear at public events, but always under the supervision of relatives and with his face hidden under a hood. Having lost all hope of a political career, the oppressed Claudius retired to a country estate, where, according to historians, he “lived in the company of the lowest people, exacerbating the disgrace of his stupidity with a bad reputation as a gambler and drunkard.”

Forced seclusion made history a true outlet for Claudius. Inspired by the mentorship of Titus Livius, he turned to writing works and, apparently, achieved success. Claudius authored an eight-volume history of Carthage, a twenty-volume history of the Etruscans, and a forty-seven-volume history of Rome. In the latter, he intended to cover the civil wars up to Augustus in detail, but at the insistence of Livia and his sister Livilla, he abandoned this dangerous idea. Suetonius mentions that Claudius's writings were read even in the second century, but unfortunately, only insignificant fragments have survived to us.

After Augustus's death in 14 AD, power passed to Tiberius. Toward the end of his reign, he established a regime of terror against the aristocracy. Claudius survived these “purges” unscathed – his reputation as a simpleton saved him, as the emperor simply did not see even a potential threat in him.

Caligula formally treated his uncle better than other relatives: he appointed him consul in 37 AD to elevate the brother of the beloved Germanicus before the crowd. However, the emperor constantly humiliated his uncle: openly mocked him and threatened to deprive him of the consulship for “slowness” in installing statues of Caligula's deceased brothers. Claudius received his share of Augustus, Livia, and Tiberius's inheritance with great delay, and since magistrates in Rome bore many expenses themselves, he had to go into debt. All this only reinforced his reputation as a loser, to whom places were not yielded at feasts, and guests threw leftovers at him.

But if high society openly mocked Claudius, what was the situation with the “lower classes”? Suetonius reports that “people did not deny him signs of attention, nor did the state deny him respect”. After Augustus's death, it was he who, by general agreement, headed the delegation of equestrians asking for permission to transport the princeps's body to Rome. Later, he again headed a delegation to congratulate Tiberius on the fall of the all-powerful Sejanus. And when Claudius replaced Caligula at public ceremonies, the plebs greeted him as “the brother of Germanicus” and “the uncle of the emperor.”

Many senators also respected him. On the Senate's initiative, Claudius was appointed priest of the cult of the deified Augustus and was even about to be granted the rights of consulars (former consuls), which would automatically make him a high-ranking senator, although Tiberius opposed the latter decision.

Apparently, the somewhat strange Claudius did not embarrass those around him – or was he not so strange after all? While Suetonius considered Claudius truly a simple-minded person, Dio Cassius believed that Claudius only pretended to be a fool for safety, and from his childhood illnesses, only stuttering remained with age.

The Unexpected Emperor

In January 41 AD, a conspiracy against Caligula matured. On January 24, at the exit of the theater, a group of conspirators led by the Praetorian officer Cassius Chaerea stabbed the emperor along with his wife and daughter. Upon learning of the tyrant's death, the senators immediately announced a return to republican orders.

However, the Praetorians decisively opposed this. They burst into the palace, where a soldier named Gratus found the fifty-year-old Claudius hiding behind a curtain. The frightened uncle of the slain emperor, who thought the soldiers had come for his life, was “raised on shields” and proclaimed the new princeps. Thus, the Praetorian Guard for the first time directly elected an emperor, creating a dangerous precedent that would “echo” in Rome in the future.

However, the situation remained uncertain, as the Senate had not yet recognized Claudius. But the republicans, entrenched on the Capitoline Hill, instead of decisive actions, became mired in power struggles between leaders – Valerius Asiaticus and Marcus Vinicius. Claudius not only enjoyed the support of the Praetorian Guard but was also perceived by the people as the legitimate successor of the pleb-popular Caligula. Eventually, the senators conceded and recognized him as the new emperor.

Emerging from the shadow of the curtain in Caligula's palace, Claudius finally stepped out of the shadow of his family.

Reign

This time, the emperor was a highly educated and scholarly man who had long endured humiliation from his own family and the upper nobility. Nevertheless, the public was aware of his historical writings, he was respected by the equestrians, and loved by the people.

The first thing Claudius did was generously reward the Praetorians. As for his opponents, he acted moderately: only the direct murderers of Caligula – Chaerea and Lupus, as well as a few junior officers, were executed. The rest were granted amnesty.

The legitimacy of the new princeps remained in question, as he came to power as a result of a coup d'état. If Tiberius was adopted by Augustus, and Caligula by Tiberius, Claudius had no direct connection to the house of the Julii, although he was a grand-nephew of Augustus through his sister Octavia. Formally, he belonged to the Claudian family, not the Julian.

Claudius was aware of the precariousness of his position. The first thing he did was establish relations with the Senate, portraying himself as “first among equals,” sitting between the consuls as a people's tribune, rather than presiding over them. The Senate once again became a place for resolving important issues. Claudius considered Augustus his model, maintaining the illusion of a “restored Republic.”

However, relying exclusively on the Senate was unsafe. An imperial chancellery was created – a bureaucratic apparatus personally subordinate to the princeps. Its core consisted of freedmen of the Julian house, entirely dependent on the emperor as his clients. An important advantage of former slaves was that they were legally unable to aspire to a political career. Only two hundred years later would the children of freedmen, like Diocletian, aspire to supreme power.

The chancellery was divided into four departments:

• the correspondence department headed by Narcissus;

• the treasury headed by Pallas;

• the justice department headed by Callistus;

• all other matters were managed by Polybius.

Claudius discussed the most important strategic issues with them before bringing them to the Senate. The most loyal of them was Narcissus, whom Claudius personally freed.

The dominance of freedmen caused dissatisfaction among the senators, outraged by the influence and wealth of yesterday's slaves. Rumors spread that the emperor was dependent on them. However, this was not the case. If his subordinates let him down, they were overthrown, as happened with Polybius or Pallas's brother, Felix.

By 48 AD, Claudius had mostly formed a bureaucratic apparatus, and the emperor decided to take control of the Senate. In 47 AD, he assumed the position of censor and began purging senators based on property qualifications: excluding those whose wealth was less than 900,000 sesterces. In their place, the Senate was replenished with representatives of the Italian and Gallic nobility, grateful to the emperor for their promotion.

At the same time, the Senate lost the right to mint its own coin. The old aristocracy expressed dissatisfaction, but their protests were suppressed, and conspiracies were uncovered. Suetonius reports that during Claudius's reign, he executed 35 senators and more than 300 equestrians.

In foreign policy, Rome for the first time since Augustus moved to active expansion. Claudius needed to enhance his prestige, and a successful war was the best way to achieve this. Remembering Caligula's dubious “successes” in Germany and Britain, he decided to achieve a real victory.

Britain, already economically linked to Gaul, became an ideal target. In 40 AD, the Catuvellauni tribe expelled the Roman ally Verica, which became a pretext for invasion. The campaign was led by Aulus Plautius. In 43 AD, four legions landed in Kent and defeated the Catuvellauni on the River Medway. Claudius personally arrived on the island to accept the surrender of the leaders in Camulodunum. In 16 days, the Romans conquered the entire southeast of Britain. Plautius became the first governor and was awarded an ovation, while Claudius received the right to a triumph. The Senate awarded him the honorary title “Britannicus,” which the emperor declined in favor of his son, who went down in history under this name.

However, maintaining troops overseas proved extremely expensive. Modern historians believe that the costs of the province exceeded the revenues. Britain became a “subsidized region,” and its conquest, while solving immediate tasks, in the long term brought more problems than benefits.

Claudius's conquests were not limited to Britain. Under him, Thrace, Noricum, Lycia, Mauretania, and Judea became part of the Empire. In terms of the scale of foreign policy successes, Claudius was surpassed only by Augustus and Trajan.

The emperor's reign was marked by his active participation in all spheres of public life. He personally presided over court sessions, resolving disputes both in the Eternal City and in the Roman provinces. Under him, large-scale construction was carried out: roads, aqueducts, and canals were built, and to solve the food crisis in Italy, a new port was built in Ostia. Claudius did not neglect entertainment either, being a great lover of gladiatorial fights and public games. According to historical tradition, it was to him that the gladiators addressed the famous greeting: “Those who are about to die salute you!”

Family and Heirs

Before coming to power, Claudius was married twice. His third wife was Valeria Messalina, a grand-niece of Augustus, who bore him his only son, Britannicus. However, she became famous not for this, but for her insatiable lust – the most sordid rumors circulated about the empress.

Messalina sought by any means to secure power for the young Britannicus and continued the bad tradition of the Julio-Claudians by eliminating relatives: under her accusations, Julia Livilla (Caligula's sister), Julia Livia (Tiberius's granddaughter), and many others were executed. It was also on her denunciation that the Stoic philosopher Lucius Annaeus Seneca was sent into exile.

Messalina's intrigues caused dissatisfaction at court. A “party” formed against her, led by Julia Agrippina – another sister of Caligula, Claudius's niece, and mother of Lucius. In 47 AD, Pallas became Agrippina's lover and took a personal interest in her fate, and later Narcissus joined the “party.”

Having lost influence, Messalina went all-in. In 48 AD, she organized a conspiracy to kill Claudius so that her lover Gaius Silius would become regent for the young Britannicus. Narcissus exposed the conspiracy, and Messalina and her lover were executed.

Pallas proposed a new wife for Claudius – his lover Agrippina. She was renowned for her beauty, charisma, and authority, and greatly appealed to the passionate womanizer Claudius (interestingly, Suetonius specifically notes that Claudius never liked men). The problem was that marriage to a niece was illegal, but the Senate made an exception for the princeps.

However, the intrigues did not end there: now Agrippina began to seek power for her son Lucius. In 49 AD, Seneca was returned from exile and became the boy's mentor. In 50 AD, his wife convinced Claudius to officially adopt his stepson, which further weakened Britannicus's already shaky position. As a praenomen, Lucius received the family name of Claudius – Nero.

Nevertheless, Claudius still wavered between Nero and Britannicus as his heir. Narcissus sided with the latter, and the emperor once again showed favor to his biological son.

The situation remained uncertain for several more years, but everything was decided by chance. In 54 AD, Narcissus fell ill and went to Campania for treatment. Agrippina took advantage of the absence of her enemy and poisoned her husband, adding poison to his favorite white mushrooms. However, Tacitus believes that Claudius died of old age. In any case, at the decisive moment, Britannicus found no loyal supporters in the capital, and the seventeen-year-old Nero became emperor. Narcissus was killed on Agrippina's orders.

Conclusion

Thanks to Seneca, who was exiled to Corsica under Claudius, the emperor remained in historical memory as an old fool. The philosopher took revenge by writing a vicious satire “The Pumpkinification of the Divine Claudius,” in which he mocked Claudius's alleged stupidity, his passion for history, his weak oratory skills, and the supposed omnipotence of freedmen. Notably, Seneca omitted the debauchery of the wives, sparing his patroness Agrippina. In the end, the philosopher descended to childish meanness, claiming that the emperor soiled himself at death...

According to the more complimentary opinion of Dio Cassius, Claudius was a worthy ruler but easily succumbed to the corrupting influence of his wives and freedmen.

Modern historiography deconstructs the images of the first emperors and seeks to revise the categorical assessments of ancient historians. Apparently, Claudius, who, according to Y. Y. Mezheritsky, gave the impression of a “clumsy professor, not an emperor,” was indeed an outstanding ruler.

Having endured all the humiliations from his own family and the upper nobility, he continued Caligula's policy of strengthening the princeps's power and limiting the Senate, but acted much more moderately, thoughtfully, and effectively. Instead of breaking old institutions, he began to gradually build new ones.

Not being feeble-minded, Claudius skillfully used the talents of his freedmen, but unfortunately, he failed to control his own wives, which ultimately led to the downfall of Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus, the fourth emperor of Rome.